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War profiteering

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Uncle Sam with Empty Treasury" illustration following World War I

A war profiteer is any person or organization that derives unreasonable profit from warfare or by selling weapons and other goods to parties at war.[1] The term typically carries strong negative connotations. General profiteering, making a profit criticized as excessive or unreasonable, also occurs in peacetime.[2] An example of war profiteers were the "shoddy" millionaires who allegedly sold recycled wool and cardboard shoes to soldiers during the American Civil War. Some have argued that major modern defense conglomerates like Lockheed Martin, Mitsubishi, Boeing, BAE Systems, General Dynamics, and RTX Corporation fit the description in the post-9/11 era.[3] This argument is based in the political influence of the defense industry, for example in 2010 the defense industry spent $144 million on lobbying and donated over $22.6 million to congressional candidates,[4] as well as large profits for defense company shareholders in the post-9/11 period.[5]

History

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American Revolution

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There were a number of food riots during the American Revolution against profiteering merchants, there were more than thirty riots in the period between 1776 and 1779.[6] In 1777 a mob of Boston women beat the merchant Thomas Boylston and confiscated his stock for hoarding coffee and sugar to drive up the price. In East Hartford, Connecticut a mob of twenty women and three men took 218lbs of sugar from a Mr. Pitkin's. In Beverly, Massachusetts a mob of 60 women and some additional men forced local merchants to charge the same price for sugar in American paper money and gold coin.[7]

Industrial Revolution

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Main article: Interchangeable parts
Whitney's gun factory in 1827

In 1798,[8] American inventor Eli Whitney received a government contract to manufacture 10,000 muskets in less than two years. After failing to produce a single musket, he was called to Washington to defend his expenditure of the treasury funds before a committee that included both John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. Believing to demonstrate the ingenuity of interchangeable parts, Whitney earned widespread support and has been incorrectly credited with inventing the idea of interchangeable parts. However Merritt Roe Smith concluded that this demonstration was staged by marking the parts beforehand, so they were not as interchangeable as he made them seem. Eventually Whitney was able to accomplish his goal of 10,000 muskets with interchangeable parts at a relatively low cost in the next eight years, and later produced more than 15,000 in the following four years.[9]

Military–industrial complex

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Main article: Military–industrial complex

A prominent example of the impact arms-producing industries have over American policy is evident in the case of Lockheed Martin donating $75,000 to House Armed Services Committee chair Representative Mac Thornberry (R-TX). Rep. Thornberry later passed a bill through the House of Representatives that would benefit Lockheed Martin. This decision was made as a direct result of the influence of Lockheed Martin.[10][dubious – discuss] Politico has stated Rep. Thornberry is the "highest overall recipient of contractor contributions among all of the 89 members of the House and Senate Armed Services Committees."[11]

Contemporary manufacturing

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Main articles: List of modern armament manufacturers and List of defense contractors
Share of arms sales by country. Source is provided by SIPRI.[12]

Currently, the United States is the world's largest weapons manufacturer and exporter, followed by Russia, France, Germany, China and the United Kingdom consecutively.[13]

International arms dealers

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Further information: Arms Industry

Basil Zaharoff's Vickers Company sold weapons to all the parties involved in the Chaco War. Companies like Opel and IBM have been labeled war profiteers for their involvement with the Third Reich. In the case of IBM they developed technologies that were used to count, catalog, and select Jewish people whom could then be targeted for efficient asset confiscation, consolidation in ghettos, deportation, enslaved labor, and, ultimately, annihilation.[14]

Commodity dealers

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War usually leads to a shortage in the supply of commodities, which results in higher prices and higher revenues. When it comes to supply and demand in terms of economics, profit is the most important end. During war time, "war-stuff"[15] is in high demand, and demands must be met. Prior to the invasion of Iraq in 2003, oil production was controlled by the Iraqi government, and was off limits to Western companies. As of 2014, foreign owned private firms dominate Iraqi oil production.[16]

Civilian contractors

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Private military contractors, including civilian contractors, are businesses that supply weapons and training to the military, and also handle logistics and base management.[citation needed] While private military contractors may seem similar to mercenaries, the difference is that mercenaries operate illegally.[citation needed] More recently, companies involved with supplying the coalition forces in the Iraq War, such as Bechtel, KBR, Academi (formerly known as Blackwater) and Halliburton, have come under fire for allegedly overcharging for their services.[17] The modern private military company is also offered as an example of sanctioned war profiteering.[18][19] On the opposing side, companies like Huawei Technologies, which upgraded Saddam's air-defense system between the two Gulf Wars, face such accusations.[20][21]

Black marketeers

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A distinction can be made between war profiteers who gain by sapping military strength and those who gain by contributing to the war. For instance, during and after World War II, enormous profits were available by selling rationed goods like cigarettes, chocolate, coffee and butter on the black market. Dishonest military personnel given oversight over valuable property sometimes diverted rationed goods to the black market. The charge could also be laid against medical and legal professionals who accept money in exchange for helping young men and nascent politicians evade the draft.

The state

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Though war initially had the objective of territorial expansion and resource gathering, the country may also profit politically and strategically, replacing governments that do not fulfill its interests by key allied governments. One example of this is the CIA supporting the Contras with weapons to carry out terror attacks against the Nicaraguan government between the late 1970s and early 1990s.[22]

Politicians

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Political figures taking bribes and favors from corporations involved with war production have been called war profiteers. Abraham Lincoln's first Secretary of War, Simon Cameron, was forced to resign in early 1862 after charges of corruption relating to war contracts. In 1947, Kentucky congressman Andrew J. May, Chairman of the powerful Committee on Military Affairs, was convicted for taking bribes in exchange for war contracts. In 1953 the United States began a covert mission to overthrow the Guatemalan government under Jacobo Arbenez. The process began with the United States labeling the government of Guatemala as a communist government. According to William Blum the reason for the United States’ intervention into Guatemala is that it was pushed by lobbyist from the United Fruit Company. The United Fruit Company had significant holdings within Guatemala and when the government decided to compete with the company this would not be accepted. Numerous officials such as President Eisenhower's Under-Secretary of State (and formerly director of the CIA) Walter Bedell Smith was a candidate for an executive position in the company while at the same time he was helping to plan the intervention.[23] This coup was successful and the United Fruit Company was able to keep its holdings within Guatemala thus ensuring its profits were secure. This is typical of the sort of engagements that the U.S became involved in during the cold war that resulted in war profiteering.

Modern-day war profiteering among politicians has increased with the recent wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. According to an article by USA Today in 2011 the top 100 largest contractors sold 410 billion dollars’ worth of arms and services.[24] Within this massive expense of services has evolved what is called the revolving door. This revolving door has not differentiated between the two political parties. An example of this revolving door is the case of William J. Lynn III. In 2010 he was confirmed to serve as the number two man in the Pentagon after he worked as a lobbyist for Raytheon.[25] This example shows the process of a person joining the government, then being hired as a lobbyist, and back to government. The revolving door is still in existence to this day.

Scientific research

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War provides demand for military technology modernization. Technologies originally designed for the military frequently also have non-military use. Both the state and corporations have gains from scientific research. One famous example is Siri, the artificially intelligent "personal assistant" programmed into Apple devices since October 4, 2011. Siri was a spin-off of CALO, a project funded by the government military development group, DARPA. CALO is an acronym that stands for "Cognitive Assistant that Learns and Organizes".[26]

In the United States

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See also: Military–industrial complex

The War Profiteering Prevention Act of 2007 intended to create criminal penalties for war profiteers and others who exploited taxpayer-funded efforts in Iraq and elsewhere around the world.[27] This act was introduced first on April 25, 2007, but was never enacted into law.[28] War profiteering cases are often brought under the Civil False Claims Act, which was enacted in 1863 to combat war profiteering during the Civil War.[29]

Major General Smedley Butler, United States Marine Corps, criticized war profiteering of US companies during World War I in War Is a Racket. He wrote that some companies and corporations increased their earnings and profits by up to 1,700 percent and how many companies willingly sold equipment and supplies to the US that had no relevant use in the war effort. In the book, Butler stated that "It has been estimated by statisticians and economists and researchers that the war cost your Uncle Sam $52,000,000,000. Of this sum, $39,000,000,000 was expended in the actual war period. This expenditure yielded $16,000,000,000 in profits."[30]

In the American Civil War, concerns about war profiteering were not limited to the activities of a few "shoddy" millionaires in the North. In the Confederacy, where supplies were severely limited, and hardships common, the mere suggestion of profiteering was considered a scurrilous charge. Georgia Quartermaster General Ira Roe Foster attempted to increase the supply of material to the troops by urging the women of his state to knit 50,000 pairs of socks. Foster's sock campaign stimulated the supply of the much needed item, but it also met with a certain amount of suspicion and backlash. Either the result of a Union disinformation campaign, or the work of suspicious minds, rumors, which Foster denied as a "malicious falsehood!",[31] began to spread that Foster and others were profiteering from the socks.[31] It was alleged that the socks contributed were being sold, rather than given to the troops. The charge was not without precedent. The historian Jeanie Attie notes that in 1861, an "especially damaging rumor" (later found to be true) circulated in the North, alleging that the Union Army purchased 5,000 pairs of socks which had been donated, and intended for the troops, from a private relief agency, the United States Sanitary Commission.[32] As the Sanitary Commission had done in the North, Foster undertook a propaganda campaign in Georgia newspapers to combat the damaging rumors and to encourage the continued contribution of socks.[33] He offered $1,000.00 to any "citizen or soldier who will come forward and prove that he ever bought a sock from this Department that was either knit by the ladies or purchased for issue to said troops."[31]

Iraq War profiteers

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Companies such as Halliburton have been criticized in the context of the Iraq War for their perceived war profiteering.[34]

Steven Clemons, a senior fellow at the New America Foundation think tank, has accused former CIA Director James Woolsey of both profiting from and promoting the Iraq War.[35]

The Center for Public Integrity has reported that US Senator Dianne Feinstein, who voted in favor of the Iraq Resolution, and her husband, Richard Blum, are making millions of dollars from Iraq and Afghanistan contracts through his company, Tutor Perini Corporation.[36][37][38] Financial disclosure forms indicate that as of January 2020 51 members of Congress and their partners own between $2.3 and $5.8 million of stock in the top 30 corporations that sell goods and services to the U.S. military.[39]

Indicted defense contractor Brent R. Wilkes was reported to be ecstatic when hearing that the United States was going to go to war with Iraq. "He and some of his top executives were really gung-ho about the war," said a former employee. "Brent said this would create new opportunities for the company. He was really excited about doing business in the Middle East."[40] One of the top profiteers from the Iraq War was oil field services corporation, Halliburton. Halliburton gained $39.5 billion in "federal contracts related to the Iraq war".[41] Many individuals have asserted that there were profit motives for the Bush-Cheney administration to invade Iraq in 2003. Dick Cheney served as Halliburton's CEO from 1995 until 2000. Cheney claimed he had cut ties with the corporation although, according to a CNN report, "Cheney was still receiving about $150,000 a year in deferred payments."[42] Cheney vowed to not engage in a conflict of interest. However, the Congressional Research Office discovered Cheney held 433,000 Halliburton stock options while serving as Vice President of the United States.[43] 2016 Presidential Candidate, Rand Paul referenced Cheney's interview with the American Enterprise Institute in which Cheney said invading Iraq "would be a disaster, it would be vastly expensive, it would be civil war, we'd have no exit strategy...it would be a bad idea". Rand continues by concluding "that's why the first Bush didn't go into Baghdad. Dick Cheney then goes to work for Halliburton. Makes hundreds of millions of dollars- their CEO. Next thing you know, he's back in government, it's a good idea to go into Iraq."[44][45] Another prominent critic is Huffington Post co-founder, Arianna Huffington. Huffington said, "We have the poster child of Bush-Cheney crony capitalism, Halliburton, involved in this. They, after all, were responsible for cementing the well."[46]

Afghanistan War

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During the Afghanistan War, defense sector stocks outperformed the average of the stock market by 58%. Commentators put into question whether the 2021 Taliban takeover of Afghanistan could be considered a failure for the United States. Jon Schwarz of The Intercept wrote that "These numbers suggest that it is incorrect to conclude [that the] Afghanistan War was a failure. On the contrary, from the perspective of some of the most powerful people in the U.S., it may have been an extraordinary success. Notably, the boards of directors of all [top] five defense contractors include retired top-level military officers."[47]

From 2007, there were regularly more contractors than U.S. forces in Afghanistan. By 2016, private contractors outnumbered US state personnel three to one.[48] In 2016, the Harris Corporation was awarded a $1.7 billion contract to supply communications equipment to Afghan security forces.[49]

Russian invasion of Ukraine

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The major oil and gas companies, including Shell,[50] ExxonMobil,[51] Chevron, Phillips 66, BP and Sinopec,[52] and the major weapon manufacturers, such as Raytheon, Lockheed Martin and BAE Systems,[53][54] reported sharp rises in interim revenues and profits.[55][56][57][58]

The term "ABCD" refers to the four companies – ADM, Bunge, Cargill and Louis Dreyfus – that dominate world agricultural commodity trading. The ABCD commodity-trading companies have seen large profits as a result of the Russian invasion of Ukraine and rising food prices.[59][60]

In March 2022, Bloomberg reported that China was reselling its US LNG shipments to a desperate Europe at a "hefty profit".[61] India was buying discounted oil from Russia.[62][63] Saudi Arabia also increased imports of discounted Russian oil.[64] In September 2022, German Economy Minister Robert Habeck accused the United States and other "friendly" gas supplier nations that they were profiting from the Ukraine war with "astronomical prices". He called for more solidarity by the US to assist energy-pressed allies in Europe.[65]

In April 2022, Russia supplied 45% of EU's gas imports, earning $900 million a day.[66] In the first two months after Russia invaded Ukraine, Russia earned $66.5 billion from fossil fuel exports, and the EU accounted for 71% of that trade.[67]

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The term 'war profiteer' evokes two stereotypes in popular culture: the rich businessman who sells weapons to governments, and the semi-criminal black marketeer who sells goods to ordinary citizens. In English-speaking countries this is particularly associated with Britain during World War II. The image of the 'businessman profiteer' carries the implication of influence and power used to actively cause wars for personal gain, rather than merely passively profit from them. In the aftermath of World War I, such profiteers were widely asserted to have existed by both the Left, and the Right.

Fictional character Lieutenant Milo Minderbinder in the novel Catch-22 has been called "perhaps the best known of all fictional profiteers" in American literature.[68]

The Adventures of Tintin comic The Broken Ear features an arms dealer called Basil Bazarov who sells arms to both sides in a war. He is a recognisable example of this "type" and is specifically based on Basil Zaharoff.

Bertolt Brecht wrote the play Mother Courage and Her Children as a didactic indictment of war profiteering.

Daddy Warbucks was a war profiteer.

In the 1985 film Clue, Colonel Mustard was a war profiteer who sold stolen radio components on the black market.

The film The Third Man features a war profiteer named Harry Lime, who steals penicillin from military hospitals and sells it on the black market.

The film Lord of War is a fictional story based on the war profiteer named Viktor Bout, who illegally sold post-Soviet arms to Liberia and other nations in conflict.

The Suicide Machines released their 2005 album, entitled War Profiteering Is Killing Us All.

In the 2011 film Sherlock Holmes: A Game of Shadows, Professor Moriarty acquires shares in many military supply companies and plots to instigate a world war and make a fortune.

In Book 2 of The Legend of Korra, the character Varrick attempted to incite and encourage a civil war among the water tribes to make profit from selling weapons.

The song "Masters of War" by Bob Dylan is about war profiteering and the military–industrial complex.

In the film Star Wars: The Last Jedi, Finn, Rose Tico and BB-8 travel to Canto Bight, a coastal city catering to the galaxy's rich and elite. Finn is initially mesmerized by the city's glitz and glamour until Rose informs him that most of the city's inhabitants are war profiteers, having made their fortunes selling weapons and ships to the First Order and the Resistance.[69] Also, the character of DJ shows Finn that the owner of the ship they're on made his profit selling weapons to the good guys (the Resistance) and the bad (the First Order). DJ then tells Finn that "it's all a machine" and that he should "Live free, don't join."

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Brandes, Stuart D. Warhogs7. University Press of Kentucky.
  2. ^ "profiteer". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2018-07-05.
  3. ^ "War profiteering and other contractor crimes committed overseas". govinfo.gov. U.S. Government Publishing Office. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
  4. ^ Hartung, William (October 31, 2011). "Tools of Influence: The Arms Lobby and the Super Committee". Archived from the original on 2017-02-24.
  5. ^ "10 companies profiting the most from war". USA Today. Retrieved 2017-02-16.
  6. ^ Clark Smith, Barbara. "Food rioters and the American Revolution". libcom.com. lib com. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
  7. ^ "The Female Food Riots of the American Revolution". newenglandhistory.org. New England Historical Society. 2015-03-21. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
  8. ^ "Arms Production | the Eli Whitney Museum and Workshop".
  9. ^ Baida, Peter. "Eli Whitney's Other Talent". American Heritage. Retrieved 22 February 2017.
  10. ^ Hartung, William; Miles, Stephen (2015-06-01). "Arms Industry Ramps Up Lobbying Efforts As Budget Battles Continue". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 2017-02-23.
  11. ^ "Meet the Defense Industry's Favorite Committee". POLITICO Magazine. Retrieved 2017-02-23.
  12. ^ "Arms production | SIPRI".
  13. ^ SIPRI Top 100 Arms-producing and Military Services Companies Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.
  14. ^ Black, Edwin. IBM and the Holocaust: the strategic alliance between Nazi Germany and America's most powerful corporation. ISBN 9780609607992, 0609607995
  15. ^ Meyer, Eugene (1917-01-01). War profiteering, some practical aspects of its control. Washington, D.C. hdl:2027/mdp.39015028305657.
  16. ^ Juhasz, Antonia (19 March 2013). "Why the war in Iraq was fought for Big Oil". cnn.com. Retrieved 22 October 2014.
  17. ^ "IRAQ FOR SALE: The War profiteers". Archived from the original on 2 October 2006. Retrieved 7 December 2008.
  18. ^ Scahill, Jeremy (25 January 2007). "Bush's Rent an Army". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on June 30, 2007. Retrieved 7 December 2008.
  19. ^ "Bush's Shadow Army". Retrieved 7 December 2008.
  20. ^ "Revealed: 17 British Firms Armed Saddam with his Weapons". Archived from the original on 9 December 2008. Retrieved 7 December 2008.
  21. ^ Lynch, Colum (17 March 2001). "Chinese Firm Probed On Links With Iraq". Archived from the original on 1 October 2007. Retrieved 7 December 2008.
  22. ^ Chomsky, Noam (1988). The Culture of Terrorism. Black Rose Books. pp. 111, 130. ISBN 9780921689287.
  23. ^ Blum, William (2004). Killing Hope: U.S. Military and CIA Interventions Since World War I. Common Courage Press. pp. 72–83.
  24. ^ "10 companies profiting the most from war". USA Today.
  25. ^ "Defense official example of revolving door between governing, lobbying". CNN.
  26. ^ Markoff, John (2008-12-13). "A Software Secretary that Takes Charge". The New York Times. Retrieved 22 October 2014.
  27. ^ "Senate Judiciary Holds Hearing on Combating War Profiteering". Archived from the original on 2008-06-26. Retrieved 7 December 2008.
  28. ^ “S. 119 — 110th Congress: War Profiteering Prevention Act of 2007.” www.GovTrack.us. 2007. February 14, 2017 https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/110/s119
  29. ^ Grayson, Alan (2007). "House Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, and Homeland Security" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 November 2008. Retrieved 7 December 2008.
  30. ^ Butler, Smedley (1935). War Is a Racket. Los Angeles: Feral House. ISBN 978-0-922915-86-6.
  31. ^ a b c Frank Moore (1865). the rebellion record: a diary of American events. p. 48.
  32. ^ Jeanie Attie (1998). Patriotic Toil: Northern Women and the American Civil War. Cornell University Press. pp. 174. ISBN 978-0-8014-2224-9.
  33. ^ Attie, p. 173
  34. ^ Eckholm, Erik (2005-06-28). "Democrats Step up Criticism of Halliburton Billing in Iraq". The New York Times.
  35. ^ "WOOLSEY WATCH: Woolsey Needs to Make a Choice Between Being a War Profiteer or War Pundit". 10 July 2005. Archived from the original on 3 March 2017. Retrieved 22 October 2015.
  36. ^ "Windfalls of War". Archived from the original on 12 March 2008. Retrieved 7 December 2008.
  37. ^ "Winning Contractors". 2003. Retrieved 1 January 2013.
  38. ^ "War brings business to Feinstein spouse / Blum's firms win multimillion-dollar defense contracts in Iraq, Afghanistan". sfgate. 27 April 2003.
  39. ^ "The Members of Congress Who Profit From War". Sludge. 13 January 2020. Retrieved 2021-02-20.
  40. ^ "Politics Case shines light on how war contracts are awarded". Retrieved 7 December 2008.
  41. ^ "Contractors reap $138bn from Iraq war". Financial Times. 18 March 2013. Archived from the original on 2022-12-10. Retrieved 2017-02-24.
  42. ^ "CNN.com - Halliburton asks employees to help defend company - Oct. 25, 2003". www.cnn.com. Retrieved 2017-03-01.
  43. ^ "CNN.com - Halliburton asks employees to help defend company - Oct. 25, 2003". www.cnn.com. Retrieved 2020-01-16.
  44. ^ "Rand Paul in '09: Cheney pushed Iraq war to benefit Halliburton". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2017-02-24.
  45. ^ Paul, Rand (April 8, 2009). "Rand Paul speaks at WKU Part 2 of 5, 4-7-09" (video). YouTube. Archived from the original on 2021-12-12. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
  46. ^ TV, Huff (2010-06-06). "Arianna Battles Liz Cheney Over Gulf Spill, Halliburton, Gaza Crisis On 'This Week' (VIDEO)". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 2017-02-24.
  47. ^ SchwarzAugust 16, 2021, Jon SchwarzJon. "$10,000 Invested in Defense Stocks When Afghanistan War Began Now Worth Almost $100,000". The Intercept.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  48. ^ "The Man Who Made Millions off the Afghan War". The New Yorker. 28 February 2016.
  49. ^ Lutz, Catherine. "The War in Afghanistan Might Not Be Effective—but, for Some, It's Profitable". Pacific Standard.
  50. ^ "Shell makes record profits as Ukraine war shakes energy markets". Financial Times. 5 May 2022. Archived from the original on 2022-12-10.
  51. ^ ""Big Oil is intentionally profiteering from the war": Exxon profits double after Putin's invasion". Salon. 29 April 2022.
  52. ^ "Oil giants reap record profits as war rages in Ukraine, energy prices soar: Here's how much they made". USA Today. 7 May 2022.
  53. ^ "Ukraine: the world's defence giants are quietly making billions from the war". The Conservation. 9 March 2022.
  54. ^ Bedi, Rahul (28 February 2022). "Russia's Invasion of Ukraine Bodes Good Business for Arms Manufacturers Worldwide". The Wire. Archived from the original on 2 March 2022. Retrieved 10 April 2022.
  55. ^ Grazier, Dan (3 March 2022). "Defense-spending hawks see an opportunity in Russia's war on Ukraine". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 8 March 2022. Retrieved 10 April 2022.
  56. ^ Rich, Gillian (4 March 2022). "Russia's Ukraine Invasion Lifts Defense Stocks, Upends Years Of Military Austerity In Europe". Investors.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2022. Retrieved 10 April 2022.
  57. ^ "The Weapons Industry Sees the War in Ukraine as a Goldmine". In These Times. 7 April 2022.
  58. ^ "War in Ukraine is a 'gold rush' for Western arms makers, experts say". The Independent. 21 April 2022.
  59. ^ "The Big 4 of agriculture unlikely to exit Russia despite mounting pressure". S&P Global. 19 April 2022.
  60. ^ "Experts say Ukraine war shows we need a new way to feed the world". Politico. 20 May 2022.
  61. ^ "China Sells U.S. LNG to Europe at a Hefty Profit". Bloomberg News. 2022-03-15. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  62. ^ "Ukraine crisis: Why India is buying more Russian oil". BBC News. 11 March 2022. Archived from the original on 2 April 2022. Retrieved 2 April 2022.
  63. ^ "U.S. Tells India There Will Be 'Consequences' for Dodging Russia Sanctions". Newsweek. 1 April 2022. Archived from the original on 12 April 2022. Retrieved 2 April 2022.
  64. ^ "Exclusive: Saudi Arabia doubles second-quarter Russian fuel oil imports for power generation". Reuters. 15 July 2022.
  65. ^ "German minister criticizes U.S. over ‘astronomical’ natural gas prices" cnbc.com. 5 October 2022.
  66. ^ "Missiles fly, but Ukraine's pipeline network keeps Russian gas flowing to Europe". CBC News. 12 April 2022.
  67. ^ "Russia has made $66 billion from fuel exports since it invaded Ukraine - and the EU is still its biggest buyer, study finds". Business Insider. 28 April 2022.
  68. ^ Stuart Dean Brandes: Warhogs: a history of war profits in America. University Press of Kentucky, 1997, ISBN 0-8131-2020-9, p. 273
  69. ^ Kain, Erik. "One Reason 'The Last Jedi' Is A Masterpiece? It Shatters Our 'Star Wars' Nostalgia". Forbes. Retrieved 2018-01-17.
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